Modulators of Candida Hyphal Morphogenesis and Uses Thereof

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to modulation of fungal morphology between yeast-to-hyphal growth transition by controlling muramyl-L-alanine concentration and uses thereof.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to modulation of fungal morphology betweenyeast-to-hyphal growth transition and use thereof.

BACKGROUND ART

Candida albicans is the most prevalent fungal pathogen in humans,causing life threatening systemic infections in immuno-compromisedpatients. Largely due to the rampant AIDS pandemic of the past quarterof a century the fungus C. albicans has rapidly risen from a largelyharmless commensal of the humans to the most prevalent fungal pathogen(Odds, F. C. (1985) Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 12, 45-93; Calderone, R. A.,and Fonzi, W. A. (2001) Trends Microbiol. 9, 327-935; Berman, J., andSudbery P. E. (2002) Nat. Rev. Genet. 3, 918-930; Gow, N. A., et al(2002) Curr. Opin. Microbial. 5, 366-371; Liu, H. (2002) Int. J. Med.Microbial. 292, 299-311). C. albicans commonly causes life-threateningsystemic infections in immuno-compromised patients. A well establishedvirulence trait of C. albicans is its ability to switch between severalmorphological forms such as budding yeast, pseudohyphae and true hyphaein response to environmental cues (Leberer, E., et al (1996) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA 93, 13217-13222; Lo, H. J., et al (1997) Cell 90;939-949; Zheng, X., et al (2004) EMBO J. 23, 1845-1856.). Serum is aninducer of this switch.

The yeast-hypha switch is well documented to play important roles inpenetrating host tissues and escaping from phagocytic destruction(Cutler, J. E. (1991) Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 45, 187-218; Lo, H. J., etal (1997) Cell 90; 939-949; Phan, Q. T., et al (2000) Infect. Immun. 68,3485-3490; Bal, C., et al (2002).Mol. Microbiol. 45, 31-44), twoprocesses generally important for pathogenesis and virulence of manymicrobial pathogens. Indeed, C. albicans mutants defective in theyeast-hypha transition exhibit significantly reduced virulence (Leberer,E., et al (1997) Curr. Biol. 7, 539-546; Lo, H. J., et al (1997) Cell90; 939-949; Braun, B. R., and Johnson, A. D. (1997). Science 277,105-105-109; Calderone, R. A., and Fonzi, W. A. (2001). TrendsMicrobiol. 9, 327-935; Stoldt, V. R., et al (1997) EMBO J. 16,1982-1991; Zheng, X., et al (2004) EMBO J. 23, 1845-1856). Thus,blocking the morphological switch holds high promise for developingeffective medical interventions for candidal infections. Although avariety of inducers have been reported to trigger the yeast-hypha switchunder laboratory conditions, serum is undisputedly the most potent andphysiologically relevant (Gow NA. (1997) Curr. Top. Med. Mycol. 8, 4355;Ernst, J. F. (2000) Microbiology 146, 1763-1774). In spite of the factthat the serum activity was first reported half a century ago (Reynolds,R., and Braude, A. I. (1956) Olin. Res. Proc 4, 40), the identity of theinducer(s) and its sensor in C. albicans remain ill defined.

Feng et al. (1999) first found that the majority of the serum hyphalinducer(s) can pass through a dialysis membrane with a molecular weightcut-off of 1 kDa (Feng, Q. et al (1999). J. Bacterial. 181, 6339-6346.).Hudson et al. (2004) recently reported that there are two distincthyphal inducers in serum (Hudson, D. A., et al (2004) Microbiology 150,3041-3049). Glucose was described to be a dialyzable inducer responsiblefor −80% of the inducing activity. A minor inducer was found to benon-dialyzable and trichloroacetic acid-precipitable. This reportobserved that adding the dialyzable fraction to glucose-containingmedium did not induce the yeast-hypha switch.

The key signalling cascade responsible for serum-induced hyphal growthhas been well established to be the cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (PKA)pathway (Leberer, E., et al (2001) Mol. Microbiol. 42, 673-687; Liu, H.(2001) Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 4, 728-735; Roche, C. R., et al (2001)Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 3631-3643). C. albicans genome contains a singleadenylate cyclases gene CDC35. Hyphal induction activates this enzyme,resulting in a spike of cellular cAMP level and subsequent activation ofPKA (Bahn, Y. S, and Sundstrom, P. (2001) J. Bacteriol. 183, 3211-3221;Roche, C. R., et al (2001) Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 3631-3643). This pathwayleads to the activation of a transcription factor CaEfg1p whichregulates the expression of a large number of hypha-specific genes(Ernst, J. F. (2000) Microbiology 146, 1763-1774; Lane, S., et al (2001)J. Biol. Chem. 276, 48988-48996; Liu, H. (2001) Curr. Opin. Microbiol.4, 728-735). CDC35 deletion causes a complete loss of hyphal developmentas well as severely retarded yeast growth (Roche, C. R., et al (2001)Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 3631-3643). Although Cdc35 is thought to reside nearthe very beginning of the cAMP/PKA pathway, its possible role in signalsensing has not been addressed.

Cdc35 contains at least three functional domains: an N-terminalRAS-association (RA) domain, a middle domain made up of 15 LRRs and acarboxy terminal catalytic domain of adenylyl cyclase. The long LRRdomain is a prominent feature of several families of proteins involvedin the innate immunity in mammals, insects and plants that have evolvedto recognize, a range of conserved pathogen associated molecularpatterns including peptidoglycans (PG), lipopolyssacharides,lipoproteins, etc (Chamaillard, M., et al (2003). Cell Microbiol. 5, 581592; Chamaillard, M., (2003) Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4, 702-707; Inohara, N.,and Nunez, G. (2003). Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3, 371-382; Girardin, S. E.,and Philpott; D. J. (2004) Eur. J. Immunol. 34, 1777-1782).

The present invention seeks to provide a hitherto unknown means formodulating hyphal growth. It provides methods for screening modulatorsthat are capable of achieving this outcome as well as therapeuticallyactive compounds that are able to interfere with C. albicans virulence.

General

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention describedherein is susceptible to variations and modifications other than thosespecifically described. The invention includes all such variation andmodifications. The invention also includes all of the steps, features,formulations and compounds referred to or indicated in thespecification, individually or collectively and any and all combinationsor any two or more of the steps or features.

Each document, reference, patent application or patent cited in thistext is expressly incorporated herein in their entirety by reference,which means that it should be read and considered by the reader as partof this text. That the document, reference, patent application or patentcited in this text is not repeated in this text is merely for reasons ofconciseness.

Any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications,and product sheets for any products mentioned herein or in any documentincorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated herein byreference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention.

The present invention is not to be limited in scope by any of thespecific embodiments described herein. These embodiments are intendedfor the purpose of exemplification only. Functionally equivalentproducts, formulations and methods are clearly within the scope of theinvention as described herein.

The invention described herein may include one or more range of values(e.g. size, concentration etc). A range of values will be understood toinclude all values within the range, including the values defining therange, and values adjacent to the range which lead to the same orsubstantially the same outcome as the values immediately adjacent tothat value which defines the boundary to the range.

Throughout this specification, unless the context requires otherwise,the word “comprise” or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”,will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated integer or groupof integers but not the exclusion of any other integer or group ofintegers. It is also noted that in this disclosure and particularly inthe claims and/or paragraphs, terms such as “comprises”, “comprised”,“comprising” and the like can have the meaning attributed to it in U.S.Patent law; e.g., they can mean “includes”, “included”, “including”, andthe like; and that terms such as “consisting essentially of” and“consists essentially of” have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S.Patent law, e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, butexclude elements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basicor novel characteristic of the invention.

Other definitions for selected terms used herein may be found within thedetailed description of the invention and apply throughout. Unlessotherwise defined, all other scientific and technical terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill inthe art to which the invention belongs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is derived from the discovery thatmuramyl-L-alanine and compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in theircore structure such as bacterial peptidoglycan compounds likemuramyl-L-alanine, muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine,N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanine, andN-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine, constitute the principalCandida hyphal inducers in body fluids. These compounds bind withspecific affinity within the leucine-rich-repeats (LRR) domain ofCaCdc35p; an essential upstream regulator for hyphal growth in Candida(e.g. Candida albicans). Furthermore, LRR domain mutations induced inCaCdc35p abolished (a) the binding of muramyl-L-alanine and compoundsthat include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure, and (b) hyphalgrowth.

Thus, the invention provides a method for treating a patient to at leastaffect Candida hyphal growth, which comprises the step of: contactingthe infection with (a) an antagonist to muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and/or(b) a compound that engages the LRR domain of CaCdc35p preventingmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure from binding to the LRR domain. Preferably, theantagonist interferes with Candida hyphal growth by means that remove,degrade, neutralize or compete with muramyl-dipeptide related compoundsin a patient's body fluids (such as without limitation, blood, plasma,bodily fluids in esophagus, throat, interstitial fluid, lymph, mucus,etc). More preferably, the antagonist is effective againstmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine, N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine,N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine ormuramyl-L-alanyl-L-isoglutamine. In a highly preferred form, theantagonist is specifically effective againstmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine.

An alternative form of the present invention resides inmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure in the manufacture of a medicament for treating apatient infected with Candida, preferably a medicament used in treatmentto affect candida hyphal growth.

The present invention also relates to compositions includingpharmaceutical compositions comprising a therapeutically effectiveamount of (a) an antagonist to muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and/or (b) a compoundthat engages the LRR domain of CaCdc35p preventing muramyl-L-alanineand/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structurefrom binding to the LRR domain. As used herein a compound will betherapeutically effective if it is able to affect Candida hyphal growth.The compound may further comprise an adjuvant capable of inducing animmune response in a patient.

The invention also provides a means for prognosing or diagnosing thecourse of a Candida infection, comprising the steps of: measuring theamount of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure in body fluids sampled from aCandida infection.

Further the invention provides a means for determining the mosteffective treatment for a Candida infection, comprising the steps of:diagnosing the state of hyphal growth according to the above method andthen determining the patient's treatment according to whether hyphalgrowth is expected or not.

Consistent with the invention there is provided a means for screeningfor agonists and antagonists of Candida hyphal growth comprising thesteps of: (a) contacting (i) muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and (ii) the LRRdomain of CaCdc35p from a Candida species with a sample compound, and(b) detecting whether the sample compound exhibits agonistic orantagonistic activity towards the interaction. Preferably, the method isused to screen for antagonistic drugs that are capable of interferingeither in a direct or indirect manner with the interaction between C.albicans (such as, muramyl-L-alanine, muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine,N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanine, N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine,muramyl-L-alanyl-L-isoglutamine).

The present invention also relates to compounds identified by the abovemethod and their use in treating Candida hyphal growth in a patient.

In another aspect of the invention a method of modulating morphogenesisof a fungus by controlling the concentration of muramyl-L-alanine in thefungal environment. The fungal environment may include body fluids (suchas without limitation, blood, plasma, bodily fluids in esophagus,throat, interstitial fluid, lymph, mucus, etc). The fungus may be ayeast such as Candida or Candida albicans. The modulation may includeinducing hyphal morphogenesis by increasing the concentration ofmuramyl-L-alanine or inhibit the hyphal morphogenesis by removingdegrading or neutralizing the concentration of muramyl-L-alanine. Theconcentration of muramyl-L-alanine may be removed degraded orneutralised by an antibody such as a catalytic antibody.

Accordingly, the methods described herein may be used in prognostic,diagnostic, therapeutic and drug screening methods. Other aspects andadvantages of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in theart from a review of the ensuing description, which proceeds withreference to the following illustrative drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: Chemical structures of hyphen a muramyl-L-alanine that does nothave the N-acetyl group commonly found in bacterial PGNs andmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine.

FIG. 2: Shows that 2% of the filtrate of TFA treated serum induced morethan 90% of the yeast cells to switch to hyphal growth.

FIG. 3: FPLC and HPLC results of the serum filtrates

FIG. 4: Structures of muramic-L-alanene isoglutamate (left), muramicdipeptide (MDP) (middle) and a peptogycan subunit (right)

FIG. 5: Solid phase synthesis of hyphin a muramyl-L-alanine that doesnot have the N-acetyl group commonly found in bacterial PGNs

DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

The present invention derives from the applicant's discovery thatmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine is approximately 300 times more activethan N-acetylglucosamine as an inducer of Candida hyphal growth.N-acetylglucosamine is currently the most potent single-compound hyphalinducer known. Further, this research has also revealed thatmuramyl-L-alanine-D-isoglutamine binds with high affinity within the LRRdomain of CaCdc35p and that LRR-domain mutations induced in CaCdc35pabolished muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine binding and hyphal growth.These data suggest that CaCdc35p plays a role in signal recognition aswell as signal transduction. These data reveal that CaCdc35p playscentral a role in signal recognition as well as signal transduction.These findings unveil an important human pathogenic factor for Candidainfection and the use of an evolutionarily conserved mechanism in thispathogen-host interaction.

Method for Treating a Patient with a Candida Infection

On the basis of the above, the present invention provides a method fortreating a patient with a Candida infection or an infection from arelated organism, which comprises the step of: contacting the infectionwith (a) an antagonist to muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and/or (b) a compoundthat engages the LRR domain of CaCdc35p preventing muramyl-L-alanineand/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structurefrom binding to the LRR domain. Desirably, the antagonist is provided ina therapeutic effective amount.

An alternative form of the present invention resides inmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure in the manufacture of a medicament for treating apatient infected with Candida, preferably a medicament used in treatmentto affect candida hyphal growth.

“Treatment” and “treat” and synonyms thereof refer to both therapeutictreatment and prophylactic or preventative measures, wherein the objectis to prevent or slow down (lessen) a Candida condition, in particularCandida Hyphal growth. Those in need of such treatment include thosealready with a Candida infection as well as those prone to getting it orthose in whom a Candida infection is to be prevented.

As used herein a “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound willbe an amount of active agent that is capable of preventing or at leastslowing down (lessening) a Candida condition, in particular Candidahyphal growth. Dosages and administration of an antagonist of theinvention in a pharmaceutical composition may be determined by one ofordinary skill in the art of clinical pharmacology or pharmacokinetics.See, for example, Mordenti and Rescigno, (1992) Pharmaceutical Research,9:17-25; Morenti et al., (1991) Pharmaceutical Research, 8:1351-1359;and Mordenti and Chappell, “The use of interspecies scaling intoxicokinetics” in Toxicokinetics and New Drug Development, Yacobi etal. (eds) (Pergamon Press: NY, 1989), pp. 42-96. An effective amount ofthe antagonist to be employed therapeutically will depend, for example,upon the therapeutic objectives, the route of administration, and thecondition of the mammal. Accordingly, it will be necessary for thetherapist to titer the dosage and modify the route of administration asrequired to obtain the optimal therapeutic effect. A typical dailydosage might range from about 10 ng/kg to up to 100 mg/kg of themammal's body weight or more per day, preferably about 1 μg/kg/day to 10mg/kg/day.

Preferably, the antagonist interferes with Candida hyphal growth bymeans that affect the concentration or presence of or binding activityof muramyl-dipeptide-related compounds in body fluids (such as withoutlimitation, blood, plasma, bodily fluids in esophagus, throat,interstitial fluid, lymph, mucus, etc) to the LRR-domain in CaCdc35p.More preferably, the antagonist is effective againstmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine, N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine,N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine ormuramyl-L-alanyl-L-isoglutamine. In a highly preferred form, theantagonist is specifically effective againstmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine.

The term “antagonist” is used in the broadest sense, and includes anymolecule that partially or fully blocks, inhibits, or neutralizes abiological activity of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure. Such antagonists may work byengaging either muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure or they may engage the LRRdomain of CaCdc35p preventing muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure from binding to theLRR domain.

Suitable antagonist molecules specifically include antagonist antibodiesor antibody fragments, muramyl-dipeptide analogues of muramyl-L-alanineand/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure,and small organic molecules, etc.

Methods for identifying antagonists of a muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure maycomprise contacting a muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure with the LRR domain ofCaCdc35p in the presence of a candidate agonist or antagonist moleculeand measuring hyphal growth.

Consistent with the invention there are provided (a) antibodies tomuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure and (b) antibodies that engage the LRR domain ofCaCdc35p preventing muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure from binding to the LRRdomain. Exemplary antibodies include polyclonal, monoclonal, humanized,bispecific, and heteroconjugate antibodies.

A. Polyclonal Antibodies

The antibodies of the invention may comprise polyclonal antibodies.Methods of preparing polyclonal antibodies are known to the skilledartisan. Polyclonal antibodies can be raised in a mammal, for example,by one or more injections of an immunizing agent and, if desired, anadjuvant.

Typically, the immunizing agent and/or adjuvant will be injected in themammal by multiple subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injections. Theintensity of the response is determined by several factors including thesize of the immunogen molecule, its chemical characteristics, and howdifferent it is from the animal's own proteins. Most natural immunogensare proteins with a molecular weight above 5 kDa that come from sourcesphylogenically far removed from the host animal (i.e., human proteinsinjected into rabbits or goats). It is desirable to use highly purifiedproteins as immunogens, since the animal will produce antibodies to evensmall amounts of impurities present as well as to the major component.The antibody response increases with repeated exposure to the immunogen,so a series of injections at regular intervals is needed to achieve bothhigh levels of antibody production and antibodies of high affinity.

To the extent that the antagonist is an antibody that engage the LRRdomain of CaCdc35p preventing muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure from binding to theLRR domain the immunogen will be an selected from amino acids comprisingthe LRR domain from CaCdc35p. Preferably, the amino acid sequence willbe selected from the region of about 363 to 927 in the CaCdc35p protein.Sequences of at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 amino acids fromthis region will generally be used to generate those antibodies.Desirably, the sequence selected will generate an antibody thatspecifically interferes with binding of muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure to theLRR domain of only CaCdc35p.

Not all immunogenic molecules will however generate the level ofantibody desired. To increase the intensity of the immune responseimmunogens are combined with complex mixtures called adjuvants.Adjuvants are a mixture of natural or synthetic compounds that, whenadministered with antigens, enhance the immune response. Adjuvants areused to (1) stimulate an immune response to an antigen that is notinherently immunogenic, (2) increase the intensity of the immuneresponse, (3) preferentially stimulate either a cellular or a humoralresponse (i.e., protection from disease versus antibody production).Examples of adjuvants which may be employed include Freund's completeadjuvant and MPL-TDM adjuvant (monophosphoryl Lipid A, synthetictrehalose dicorynomycolate). A more extensive discussion of adjuvantsand their use in immunization protocols is given in Immunology MethodsManual, vol. 2, I. Lefkovits, ed., Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.,1997, ch. 13. Immunology Methods Manual is available as a four volumeset, (Product Code Z37, 435-0); on CD-ROM, (Product Code Z37, 436-9); orboth, (Product Code Z37, 437-7)

If the immunogen is still unable to generate an acceptable response, itmay be conjugated to a carrier protein that is more immunogenic. Smallmolecules such as drugs, organic compounds, and peptides andoligosaccharides with a molecular weight of less than 2-5 kDa like, forexample, muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure, are not usually immunogenic,even when administered in the presence of adjuvant. In order to generatean immune response to these compounds, it is necessary to attach them toa protein or other compound, termed a carrier that is immunogenic. Whenattached to a carrier protein the small molecule immunogen is called ahapten. Haptens are also conjugated to carrier proteins for useimmunoassays. The carrier protein provides a means of attaching thehapten to a solid support such as a microtiter plate or nitrocellulosemembrane. When attached to agarose they may be used for purification ofthe anti-hapten antibodies. They may also be used to create amultivalent antigen that will be able to form large antigen-antibodycomplexes. When choosing carrier proteins, remember that the animal willform antibodies to the carrier protein as well as to the attachedhapten. It is therefore relevant to select a carrier protein forimmunization that is unrelated to proteins that may be found in theassay sample. If haptens are being conjugated for both immunization andassay, the two carrier proteins should be as different as possible. Thisallows the antiserum to be used without having to isolate theanti-hapten antibodies from the anti-carrier antibodies.

Where the immunizing agent is muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure preferably themuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure are conjugated to a protein known to be immunogenicin the mammal being immunized.

Examples of such immunogenic proteins include but are not limited tokeyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), serum albumin, bovine thyroglobulin,soybean trypsin inhibitor, and a toxoid, for example tetanus toxoid.

KLH is a respiratory protein found in mollusks. Its large size makes itvery immunogenic, and the large number of lysine residues available forconjugation make it very useful as a carrier for haptens. The phylogenicseparation between mammals and mollusks increases the immunogenicity andreduces the risk of cross-reactivity between antibodies against the KLHcarrier and naturally occurring proteins in mammalian samples.

KLH is offered both in its native form, for conjugation via amines, andsuccinylated, for conjugation via carboxyl groups. Succinylated KLH maybe conjugated to a hapten containing amine groups (such as a peptide)via cross-linking with carbodiimide between the newly introducedcarboxyl groups of KLH and the amine groups of the hapten.

Protocols for conjugation of haptens to carrier proteins may be found inAntibodies: A Laboratory Manual, E. Harlow and D. Lane, ed., Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1988) pp. 78-87 (ProductCode A 2926)

The immunization protocol may be selected by one skilled in the artwithout undue experimentation. Protocols for preparing immunogens,immunization of animals, and collection of antiserum may be found inAntibodies: A Laboratory Manual, E. Harlow and D. Lane, ed., Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1988) pp. 55-120 (ProductCode A 2926).

B. Monoclonal Antibodies

The antibodies may, alternatively, be monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonalantibodies may be prepared using hybridoma methods, such as thosedescribed by Kohler and Milstein (1975), Nature, 256:495. In a hybridomamethod, a mouse, hamster, or other appropriate host animal, is typicallyimmunized with an immunizing agent as described above to elicitlymphocytes that produce or are capable of producing antibodies thatwill specifically bind to the immunizing agent. Alternatively, thelymphocytes may be immunized in vitro.

Generally, either peripheral blood lymphocytes (“PBLs”) are used ifcells of human origin are desired, or spleen cells or lymph node cellsare used if non-human mammalian sources are desired. The lymphocytes arethen fused with an immortalized cell line using a suitable fusing agent,such as polyethylene glycol, to form a hybridoma cell. Immortalized celllines are usually transformed mammalian cells, particularly myelomacells of rodent, bovine and human origin. Usually, rat or mouse myelomacell lines are employed. The hybridoma cells may be cultured in asuitable culture medium that preferably contains one or more substancesthat inhibit the growth or survival of the unfused, immortalized cells.For example, if the parental cells lack the enzyme hypoxanthine guaninephosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT or HPRT), the culture medium for thehybridomas typically will include hypoxanthine, aminopterin, andthymidine (“HAT medium”), which substances prevent the growth ofHGPRT-deficient cells.

Preferred immortalized cell lines are those that fuse efficiently,support stable high level expression of antibody by the selectedantibody-producing cells, and are sensitive to a medium such as HATmedium. More preferred immortalized cell lines are murine myeloma lines,which can be obtained, for instance, from the Salk Institute CellDistribution Center, San Diego, Calif. and the American Type CultureCollection, Manassas, Va. Human myeloma and mouse-human heteromyelomacell lines also have been described for the production of humanmonoclonal antibodies (Kozbor, J. (1984) Immunol., 133:3001).

The culture medium in which the hybridoma cells are cultured can then beassayed for the presence of monoclonal antibodies directed againstmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure.

After the desired hybridoma cells are identified, the clones may besubcloned by limiting dilution procedures and grown by standard methods.Suitable culture media for this purpose include, for example, Dulbecco'sModified Eagle's Medium and RPMI-1640 medium. Alternatively, thehybridoma cells may be grown in vivo as ascites in a mammal.

The monoclonal antibodies secreted by the subclones may be isolated orpurified from the culture medium or ascites fluid by conventionalimmunoglobulin purification procedures such as, for example, proteinA-Sepharose, hydroxylapatite chromatography, gel electrophoresis,dialysis, or affinity chromatography.

The monoclonal antibodies may also be made by recombinant DNA methods,such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567.

The antibodies may be monovalent antibodies. Methods for preparingmonovalent antibodies are well known in the art. For example, one methodinvolves recombinant expression of immunoglobulin light chain andmodified heavy chain. The heavy chain is truncated generally at anypoint in the Fc region so as to prevent heavy chain cross-linking.Alternatively, the relevant cysteine residues are substituted withanother amino acid residue or are deleted so as to preventcross-linking.

In vitro methods are also suitable for preparing monovalent antibodies.Digestion of antibodies to produce fragments thereof, particularly, Fabfragments, can be accomplished using routine techniques known in theart.

C. Human and Humanized Antibodies

The antibodies of the invention may further comprise humanizedantibodies or human antibodies. Humanized forms of non-human (e.g.,murine) antibodies are chimeric immunoglobulins, immunoglobulin chainsor fragments thereof (such as Fv, Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)₂ or otherantigen-binding sub-sequences of antibodies) which contain minimalsequence derived from non-human immunoglobulin. Humanized antibodiesinclude human immunoglobulins (recipient antibody) in which residuesfrom a complementary determining region (CDR) of the recipient arereplaced by residues from a CDR of a non-human species (donor antibody)such as mouse, rat or rabbit having the desired specificity, affinityand capacity. In some instances, Fv framework residues of the humanimmunoglobulin are replaced by corresponding non-human residues.Humanized antibodies may also comprise residues which are found neitherin the recipient antibody nor in the imported CDR or frameworksequences. In general, the humanized antibody will comprisesubstantially all of at least one, and typically two, variable domains,in which all or substantially all of the CDR regions correspond to thoseof a non-human immunoglobulin and all or substantially all of the FRregions are those of a human immunoglobulin consensus sequence. Thehumanized antibody optimally also will comprise at least a portion of animmunoglobulin constant region (Fc), typically that of a humanimmunoglobulin.

Methods for humanizing non-human antibodies are well known in the art.Generally, a humanized antibody has one or more amino acid residuesintroduced into it from a source which is non-human. These non-humanamino acid residues are often referred to as “import” residues, whichare typically taken from an “import” variable domain. Humanization canbe essentially performed following the method of Winter and co-workers[Jones et al., (1986) Nature, 321:522-525; Riechmann et al., (1988)Nature, 332:323-327; Verhoeyen et al., (1988) Science 239:1534-1536], bysubstituting rodent CDRs or CDR sequences for the correspondingsequences of a human antibody. Accordingly, such “humanized” antibodiesare chimeric antibodies (U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567), wherein substantiallyless than an intact human variable domain has been substituted by thecorresponding sequence from a non-human species. In practice, humanizedantibodies are typically human antibodies in which some CDR residues andpossibly some FR residues are substituted by residues from analogoussites in rodent antibodies.

Human antibodies can also be produced using various techniques known inthe art, including phage display libraries [Hoogenboom and Winter, J.(1991) Mol. Biol., 227:381; Marks et al., (1991) J. Mol. Biol.,222:581]. The techniques of Cole et al. and Boerner et al. are alsoavailable for the preparation of human monoclonal antibodies (Cole etal., (1985) Monoclonal Antibodies and Cancer Therapy, Alan R. Liss, p.77 and Boerner et al., (1991) J. Immunol., 147(1):86-95]. Similarly,human antibodies can be made by introducing of human immunoglobulin lociinto transgenic animals, e.g., mice in which the endogenousimmunoglobulin genes have been partially or completely inactivated. Uponchallenge, human antibody production is observed, which closelyresembles that seen in humans in all respects, including generearrangement, assembly, and antibody repertoire. This approach isdescribed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,545,807; 5,545,806;5,569,825; 5,625,126; 5,633,425; 5,661,016, and in the followingscientific publications: Marks et al., (1992) Bio/Technology 10,779-783; Lonberg et al., (1994) Nature 368 856-859; Morrison, (1994)Nature 368, 812-13; Fishwild et al., (1996) Nature Biotechnology 14,845-51; Neuberger, (1996) Nature Biotechnology 14, 826; Lonberg andHuszar, (1995) Intern. Rev. Immunol. 13 65-93.

D. Bispecific Antibodies

Bispecific antibodies are monoclonal, preferably human or humanized,antibodies that have binding specificities for at least two differentantigens. In the present case, one of the binding specificities is formuramyl-L-alanine and/or a compound that includes muramyl-L-alanine inits core structure, the other one is for another compound havingmuramyl-L-alanine in its core structure.

Methods for making bispecific antibodies are known in the art.Traditionally, the recombinant production of bispecific antibodies isbased on the co-expression of two immunoglobulin heavy-chain/light-chainpairs, where the two heavy chains have different specificities [Milsteinand Cuello, (1983) Nature, 305:537-539].

E. Heteroconjugate Antibodies

Heteroconjugate antibodies are also within the scope of the presentinvention. Heteroconjugate antibodies are composed of two covalentlyjoined antibodies. Such antibodies have, for example, been proposed totarget immune system cells to unwanted cells [U.S. Pat. No. 4,676,980],and for treatment of HIV infection [WO 91/00360; WO 92/200373; EP03089]. It is contemplated that the antibodies may be prepared in vitrousing known methods in synthetic protein chemistry, including thoseinvolving crosslinking agents. For example, immunotoxins may beconstructed using a disulfide exchange reaction or by forming athioether bond. Examples of suitable reagents for this purpose includeiminothiolate and methyl-4-mercaptobutyrimidate and those disclosed, forexample, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,676,980.

F. Immunoconjugates

The invention also pertains to immunoconjugates comprising an antibodyconjugated to a cytotoxic agent such as a chemotherapeutic agent, toxin(e.g., an enzymatically active toxin against Candida), or a radioactiveisotope (i.e., a radioconjugate).

Conjugates of the antibody and cytotoxic agent are made using a varietyof bifunctional protein-coupling agents such asN-succinimidyl-3-(2-pyridyldithiol) propionate (SPDP), iminothiolane(IT), bifunctional derivatives of imidoesters (such as dimethyladipimidate HCL), active esters (such as disuccinimidyl suberate),aldehydes (such as glutareldehyde), bis-azido compounds (such asbis(p-azidobenzoyl)hexanediamine), bis-diazonium derivatives (such asbis-(p-diazoniumbenzoyl)-ethylenediamine), diisocyanates (such astolyene 2,6-diisocyanate), and bis-active fluorine compounds (such as1,5-difluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene).

Compositions of the Invention

Antibodies produced according to the invention, as well as othermolecules identified by the screening assays disclosed herein, can beadministered for the treatment of Candida infection in the form ofpharmaceutical compositions.

Thus, the present invention also relates to compositions includingpharmaceutical compositions comprising a therapeutically effectiveamount of an antagonist to muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure. As used herein acompound will be therapeutically effective if it is able to affectCandida hyphal growth.

Pharmaceutical forms of the invention suitable for injectable useinclude sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersionsand sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterileinjectable solutions and or one or more carrier. Alternatively,injectable solutions may be delivered encapsulated in liposomes toassist their transport across cell membrane. Alternatively or inaddition such preparations may contain constituents of self-assemblingpore structures to facilitate transport across the cellular membrane. Itmust be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and mustbe preserved against the contaminating/destructive action ofmicroorganisms such as, for example, bacteria and fungi.

The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, forexample, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycoland liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), suitable mixturesthereof, and vegetable oils. The proper fluidity can be maintained, forexample, by the use of a coating such as, for example, lecithin, by themaintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion andby the use of surfactants. Preventing the action of microorganisms inthe compositions of the invention is achieved by adding antibacterialand/or antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol,sorbic acid, thimerosal and the like. In many cases, it will bepreferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars or sodiumchloride. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can bebrought about by the use in the compositions of agents delayingabsorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.

Sterile injectable solutions are prepared by incorporating the activecompounds in the required amount in the appropriate solvent with severalof the other ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed byfiltered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared byincorporating the various sterilized active ingredient into a sterilevehicle which contains the basic dispersion medium and the requiredother ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterilepowders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, thepreferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze-drying, toyield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desiredingredient from previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.

When the active ingredients, in particular small molecules contemplatedwithin the scope of the invention, are suitably protected they may beorally administered, for example, with an inert diluent or with anedible carrier, or it may be enclosed in hard or soft shell gelatincapsule, or it may be compressed into tablets, or it may be incorporateddirectly with the food of the diet. For oral therapeutic administration,the active compound may be incorporated with excipients and used in theform of ingestible tablets, buccal tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs,suspensions, syrups, wafers, and the like. Such compositions andpreparations should contain at least 1% by weight of active compound.The percentage of the compositions and preparations may, of course, bevaried and may conveniently be between about 5 to about 80% of theweight of the unit. The amount of active compound in suchtherapeutically useful compositions in such that a suitable dosage willbe obtained. Preferred compositions or preparations according to thepresent invention are prepared so that a dosage unit form containsbetween about 0.1 μg and 20 g of active compound.

The tablets, troches, pills, capsules and the like may also containbinding agents, such as, for example, gum, acacia, corn starch orgelatin. They may also contain an excipient, such as, for example,dicalcium phosphate. They may also contain a disintegrating agent suchas, for example, corn starch, potato starch, alginic acid and the like.They may also contain a lubricant such as, for example, magnesiumstearate. They may also contain a sweetening agent such a sucrose,lactose or saccharin. They may also contain a flavouring agent such as,for example, peppermint, oil of wintergreen, or cherry flavouring.

When the dosage unit form is a capsule, it may contain, in addition tomaterials of the above type, a liquid carrier.

Various other materials may be present as coatings or to otherwisemodify the physical form of the dosage unit. For instance, tablets,pills, or capsules may be coated with shellac, sugar or both. A syrup orelixir may contain the active compound, sucrose as a sweetening agent,methyl and propylparaben as preservatives, a dye and flavouring such as,for example, cherry or orange flavour. Of course, any material used inpreparing any dosage unit form should be pharmaceutically pure andsubstantially non-toxic in the amounts employed. In addition, the activecompound(s) may be incorporated into sustained-release preparations andformulations.

The present invention also extends to forms suitable for topicalapplication such as, for example, creams, lotions and gels. Such aformulation comprises a gelling agent in a concentration effective topromote gelling upon contact with the eye or with lacrimal fluid in theexterior of the eye. Suitable gelling agents include, but are notlimited to, thermosetting polymers such as tetra-substituted ethylenediamine block copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide (e.g.,poloxamine); polycarbophil; and polysaccharides such as gellan,carrageenan (e.g., kappa-carrageenan and iota-carrageenan), chitosan andalginate gums.

To this extent the active ingredient may be held within a matrix whichcontrols the release of the active agent. Preferably, the matrixcomprises a substance selected from the group consisting of lipid,polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, polycaprolactone,poly(glycolic)acid, poly(lactic)acid, polycaprolactone, polylactic acid,polyanhydrides, polylactide-co-glycolides, polyamino acids, polyethyleneoxide, acrylic terminated polyethylene oxide, polyamides, polyethylenes,polyacrylonitriles, polyphosphazenes, poly(ortho esters), sucroseacetate isobutyrate (SAIB), and combinations thereof and other polymerssuch as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,667,371; 6,613,355;6,596,296; 6,413,536; 5,968,543; 4,079,038; 4,093,709; 4,131,648;4,138,344; 4,180,646; 4,304,767; 4,946,931, each of which is expresslyincorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Preferably, the matrixsustainedly releases the drug.

Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and/or diluents may also includeany and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterials and/orantifungals, isotonic and absorption delaying agents and the like. Theuse of such media and agents for pharmaceutical active substances iswell known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agentis incompatible with the active ingredient, use thereof in thetherapeutic compositions is contemplated.

Supplementary active ingredients can also be incorporated into thecompositions. Preferably those supplementary active ingredients areantifungal agents such as antifungal antibiotics like, for example,polyenes (e.g., amphotericin b, candicidin, dennostatin, filipin,fungichromin, hachimycin, hamycin, lucensomycin, mepartricin, natamycin,nystatin, pecilocin, perimycin), others (e.g., azaserine, griseofulvin,oligomycins, neomycin undecylenate, pyrroinitrin, siccanin, tubercidin,viridin). Alternatively they may be synthetic antifungals such asallylamines (e.g., butenafine, naftifine, terbinafine), imidazoles(e.g., bifonazole, butoconazole, chlordantoin, chlormiidazole,citoconazole, clotrimazole, econazole, enilconazole, fenticonazole,flutrimazole, isoconazole, ketoconazole, lanoconazole, miconazole,omoconazole, oxiconazole nitrate, sertaconazole, sulconazole,tioconazole), thiocarbamates (e.g., tolciclate, tolindate, tolnaftate),triazoles (e.g., fluconazole, itraconazole, saperconazole, terconazole)others (e.g., acrisorcin, amorolfine, biphenamine,bromosalicylchloranilide, buclosamide, calcium propionate,chlorphenesin, ciclopirox, cloxyquin, coparaffinate, diamthazoledihydrochloride, exalamide, flucytosine, halethazole, hexetidine,loflucarban, nifuratel, potassium iodide, propionic acid, pyrithione,salicyanilide, sodium propionate, sulbentine, tenonitrozole, triacetin,ujothion, undecylenic acid, zinc propionate).

It is especially advantageous to formulate parenteral compositions indosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage.Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discrete unitssuited as unitary dosages for the mammalian subjects to be treated, eachunit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculatedto produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with therequired pharmaceutical carrier. The dosage unit forms of the inventionare dictated by and directly dependent on (a) the unique characteristicsof the active material and the particular therapeutic effect to beachieved, and (b) the limitations inherent in the art of compoundingsuch an active material for the treatment of disease in living subjectshaving a diseased condition in which bodily health is impaired as hereindisclosed in detail.

The principal active ingredient is compounded for convenient andeffective administration in effective amounts with a suitablepharmaceutically acceptable carrier in dosage unit form. A unit dosageform can, for example, contain the principal active compound in amountsranging from 0.5 μg to about 2000 mg. Expressed in proportions, theactive compound is generally present in from about 0.5 pg to about 2000mg/ml of carrier. In the case of compositions containing supplementaryactive ingredients, the dosages are determined by reference to the usualdose and manner of administration of the said ingredients.

Prognosing or Diagnosing the Course of a Candida Infection

The invention also provides a means for prognosing or diagnosing thecourse of a Candida infection, comprising the steps of: measuring theamount of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure in body fluids sampled from aCandida infection.

Further the invention provides a means for determining the mosteffective treatment for a Candida infection, comprising the steps of:diagnosing the state of hyphal growth according to the above method andthen determining the patient's treatment according to whether hyphalgrowth is expected or not.

Diagnostic and prognostic methods will generally be conducted using abiological sample obtained from a patient. A “sample” refers to a sampleof tissue or fluid suspected of containing an muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure from anindividual including, but not limited to, e.g., plasma, serum, spinalfluid, lymph fluid, the external sections of the skin, respiratory,intestinal, and genitourinary tracts, tears, saliva, blood cells,tumours, organs, tissue and samples of in vitro cell cultureconstituents.

According to the diagnostic and prognostic methods of the presentinvention, alteration of levels of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compoundsthat include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure in body fluidsmay be detected using anyone of the methods described herein.

Alteration of levels of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure in body fluids can be detectedby screening for such compounds. Such alterations can be determined byany assay that detects changes in the level of muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure such asbiochemical assays like HLPC assays and the like or immunological assaysin accordance with conventional techniques. Antibodies (polyclonal ormonoclonal) as described herein may be used to detect muramyl-L-alanineand/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structurein body fluids. The antibodies may be prepared as discussed above.Immunological assays can be done in any convenient format known in theart. These include Western blots, immunohistochemical assays and ELISAassays. Any means for detecting a binding pair can be used. Functionalassays, such as protein binding determinations, can be used.

Screening for Agonists and Antagonists of Candida Hyphal Growth

Consistent with the invention there is provided a means for screeningfor agonists and antagonists of Candida hyphal growth comprising thesteps of: (a) contacting (i) muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and (ii) the LRRdomain of CaCdc35p from a Candida species with a sample compound, and(b) detecting whether the sample compound exhibits agonistic orantagonistic activity towards the interaction. Preferably, the method isused to screen for antagonistic drugs that are capable of interferingeither in a direct or indirect manner with the interaction between C.albicans and muramyl-L-alanine, muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine,N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanine, N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine, ormuramyl-L-alanyl-L-isoglutamine.

Screening assays for antagonist drug candidates are designed to identifycompounds that bind the LRR domain of CaCdc35p to inhibit the binding ofmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure with the protein or interfere with the interactionbetween muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and the LRR domain ofCaCdc35p. Such screening assays will include assays amenable tohigh-throughput screening of chemical libraries, making themparticularly suitable for identifying small molecule drug candidates.

The assays can be performed in a variety of formats, including proteinbinding assays, biochemical screening assays, immunoassays, andcell-based assays, which are well characterized in the art. Such assaysfor antagonists are common in that they call for contactingmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine intheir core structure and the LRR domain of CaCdc35p in the presence ofthe drug candidate for a time sufficient to allow these components tointeract.

Compounds that interfere with the interaction can be tested as follows:usually a reaction mixture is prepared containing muramyl-L-alanineand/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structureand at least the LRR domain of CaCdc35p for a time allowing for theinteraction and binding of the products. To test the ability of acandidate compound to inhibit binding, the reaction is run in theabsence and in the presence of the test compound. In addition, a placebomay be added to a third reaction mixture, to serve as positive control.The binding (complex formation) between the test compound and the intra-or extracellular components present in the mixture is monitored asdescribed hereinabove. The formation of a complex in the controlreaction(s) but not in the reaction mixture containing the test compoundindicates that the test compound interferes with the interaction of thetest compound and its reaction partner.

Potential antagonists include small molecules that bind to the site inthe LRR domains where muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure bind, thereby blocking thenormal biological activity of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds thatinclude muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure. Examples of smallmolecules include, but are not limited to, small peptides orpeptide-like molecules, preferably soluble peptides, and syntheticnon-peptidyl organic or inorganic compounds.

These small molecules can be identified by any one or more of thescreening assays discussed hereinabove and/or by any other screeningtechniques well known for those skilled in the art.

The present invention also relates to compounds identified by the abovemethod and their use in treating Candida hyphal growth in a patient.

Non-Limiting Illustration of the Invention

Further features of the present invention are more fully described inthe following description. This description is included solely for thepurposes of exemplifying the present invention. It should not beunderstood as a restriction on the broad description of the invention asset out above.

The following discussion describes the identification and functionalcharacterization of the hyphal inducer(s) in human and bovine sera andtheir sensor in C. albicans. It shows that peptidoglycan-like moleculesare significantly enriched in the chromatographic fractions of serumwith strong hypha-inducing activity. Through chemical synthesis, theinventor has found that compounds with a core structure ofmuramyl-L-alanine (e.g.: FIG. 1) are potent hyphal inducers withmuramyl-L-alanine-D-isoglutamine being the most active. They also showthat the inducers may directly bind the LRR domain of the adenylatecyclase Cdc35, stimulate cAMP production and promote hyphal growth.

Co-Precipitation of Hypha-Inducing Activity from Serum with SerumProteins

Precipitation of serum proteins with acetonitrile trapped about −60-70%of the hypha-inducing activity in the protein pellet and a brieftreatment of serum at room temperature with weak acid, such as 1%trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), was sufficient to release a majority of theactivity into supernatant (FIG. 2). The results indicate that a majorityof the hypha-inducing agents, in serum is present in protein-bound form.Hence, in the fractionation procedure described below the bovine andhuman sera were first treated with 1% TFA before filtration through amembrane with a molecular weight cut off of 3 kDa to remove serumproteins. Fast performance liquid chromatography (FPLC) fractionation ofthe serum filtrate detected significant hypha-inducing activity in asingle peak centered about fraction 30 (Ff) (FIG. 3, left). Ff30 washighly active in hyphal induction, inducing 50% germ tube formation(I₅₀) at −0.2 mg (dry weight)/ml. In comparison, fresh serum and the <3kDa filtrate had I₅₀ values of −5.5 and 1.3 mg/ml respectively. Furtherseparation of Ff30 by using conventional reversed-phase high performanceliquid chromatography (HPLC) found the hypha-inducing activity to berelatively evenly present in fractions 5 to 10. To achieve betterseparation, the active fractions 5 to 10 were pooled, freeze-dried andsubjected to a. second round of reversed-phase HPLC using a WatersAtlantis dC18, 5 μM column. This column allows the use of aqueous mobilephase and provides much improved retention of polar compounds. Thehyphal induction assay located high hypha-inducing activity in fractionswith retention times from 10 and 14 min corresponding to a group ofpeaks with low UV absorption (FIG. 3). The active fractions (Hf 10/14),when pooled, exhibited an I₅₀ of approximately 0.12 mg/ml. Thehypha-inducing activity of both human and bovine sera exhibited nearlyidentical chromatographic profiles and retention times, indicating thatthe inducers are similar in nature. Attempts to further resolve theactive fractions by using a range of sizing, ion exchange and affinitychromatography were not successful, because the activity was alwaysdistributed rather broadly. Inventor obtained a total of approximately 7mg of dry material of Hf10/14 from 500 ml serum and subjected it for NMRanalysis. The NMR spectra cleared showed signals for glucose, fructose,glycerol and lactic acid. However, none of these compounds was found tohave appreciable hypha-inducing activity individually or in combinationin PBS or Hank's solution. However, further analysis of the lowintensity NMR signals suggested the presence of muramic acid, alanineand isoglutamine. However, owing to the weak signals and impurity of thesample, there was uncertainty whether the three moieties belong to thesame molecule. Intriguingly, muramic acid (Mur) is thought to be onlypresent in bacterial PGs in nature; and alanine and isoglutamine arevery common amino acids, of the short peptides cross-linking theN-acetylglucosamine-N-acetylmutamic acid chains in PGs (FIG. 1). Thus,two chemical structures have been identified: muramyl-L-alanine (FIG. 1top) and muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (FIG. 1 bottom and FIG. 4).Inventor also noted that in nature muramic acid is almost universallyfound in 2-N-acetyl form, but their NMR data did not detect this groupin the proposed muramic acid.

The Presences of Mur-Containing Compounds in the Active Serum Fractions

Although Mur-containing compounds have been detected in a range ofnormal and inflammatory tissues of mammals (including brain, kidney,liver and peripheral leukocytes and in urine), its presence in serumremains controversial.

Established protocols were used to confirm the presence ofMur-containing molecules in serum and their enrichment in thechromatographic fractions active for hyphal induction. To release freeMur, samples were first hydrolyzed with 4N HCl and then reduced bysodium borohydride to remove the anomeric center of the ring that iswell known to cause the splitting of chromatographic peaks. To enhancedetection sensitivity, the reduced samples were derivatized bydansylation, which adds a fluorescent dansyl group to each free NH₂group. The dansylated samples were separated by reversed-phase HPLCusing a Waters Sunfire C18 column. The UV spectra of Hf10/14 processedby following the above protocol showed a well isolated peak with aretention time of 22.07 min that matches that of the authentic Murprocessed in an identical fashion (FIG. 3). Mass spectrometry (MS)analysis of this peak of the derivatized authentic Mur revealed a cleanspectrum with two prominent ions of m/z 487.1 (M+H)⁺ and 469.1 that areconsistent with dansyl Mur and dansyl Mur minus one H₂O respectively. MSanalysis of the peak from Hf10/14 produced both 487.1 and 469.1 ions. Togain more robust results borohydride was replaced with sodiumborodeuteride in the reduction step, which is expected to increase themass of the dansylated Mur to 488.1. Under this condition, HPLC detectedthe same peak at 22.07 min and MS analysis of the peak revealed strongions of m/z 488.1 and 470.1. By contrast, the Mur signals were notdetected if the HCl hydrolysis step was omitted; indicating that serumMur is predominantly present as a moiety of larger PG fragments.Furthermore, significant Mur signals were not detected from any of theserum fractions without hypha-inducing activity, indicating that themajority of serum Mur-containing compounds are concentrated in thechromatographic fractions with strong hypha-inducing activity. Usingthis protocol Mur was invariably detected from several different batchesof bovine sera, 2 human plasma samples and 10 human sera. Mur was notdetected from mock samples (water or PBS) processed by following thesame procedure, excluding the possibility of bacterial contamination.When the <3 kDa serum filtrate was directly processed by this protocol,the HPLC peak for dansyl Mur overlapped with high chemical complexity ofthe filtrate, made the detection difficult. This observation mightexplain, at least in part, why some earlier efforts failed to detect Murin serum. In summary, the NMR data suggested the presence ofmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine in the serum fractions enriched forhypha-inducing activity; and subsequently MS analysis confirmed asignificant enrichment of Mur-containing molecules and detected a MS ioncorresponding to the mass of muramyl-alanyl-isoglutamine in the samefractions. This is believed to be the first unequivocal detection ofMur-containing molecules in sera from healthy people and animals. Usingauthentic muramic acid as a standard in HPLC, the total amount ofmuramic acid detected in the FPLC fractions Hf31 to 33 was quantified.These data established that the amount of Mur in both human and bovineserum is at least 0.5-1 mM.

Synthetic PG Components Exhibited Potent Hypha-Inducing Activity

To determine whether the NMR-elucidated compound is active for hyphalinduction, solid-phase chemical synthesis was undertaken ofmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (MLADiQ) and muramyl-L-alanine (MLA).N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D isoglutamine (NMLADiQ) andN-acetylmurmyl-L-alanine (NMLA) was also synthesized together withcompounds containing D-alanine (MDA and MDADiQ) and L-isoglutamine(MLALiQ) to evaluate the, importance of the N-acetyl group and thestereo-chemical configuration of the amino acids for hyphal induction.The schemes for chemical synthesis of the compounds followed standardprocedures. All the synthesized compounds were purified by HPLC andtheir identities confirmed by MS. The I₅₀ of each compound was thendetermined. These data revealed that MLADiQ was a highly potent hyphalinducer with an I₅₀ of approximately 10 μM. Strikingly, the N-acetylatedcompound NMLADiQ had an I₅₀ of approximately 6 mM, 600 times less activethan MLADiQ. Also, NMLADiQ at increased concentrations was never able toinduce higher than 60% germ tube formation and the activity started todrop significantly when the concentration was raised above 20 mM. MLAwas also active with an I₅₀ of approximately 200 μM, while NMLA had anI₅₀ of approximately 8 mM and exhibited similar diminishinghypha-inducing activity at high concentrations as NMLADiQ. The compoundswith the L-alanine substituted by D-alanine (MDA and MDADiQ) wereinactive for hyphal induction, whereas the compound with theD-isoglutamine replaced by L-isoglutamine (MLALiQ) exhibited reduced butstill substantial activity with an I₅₀ of approximately 180 μM. Neithermuramic nor N-acetylmuramic acid was active for hyphal induction.N-Acetylglucosamine (NAG), the strongest single-compound hyphal inducerpreviously known had an I₅₀ of approximately 3 mM. Glucose had noactivity in the assay conditions. Taken together, the followingconclusions can be drawn from these data. First, MLADiQ is a highlypotent hyphal inducer, consistent with the NMR— elucidated chemicalstructure. Second, the absence of the, N-acetyl group in the muramylmoiety is crucial for high hypha-inducing activity, which provides anexcellent explanation about why our NMR′ analysis did not detect signalsfor the N-acetyl group. Hyphin of FIG. 1 does not have the N-acetylgroup commonly found in bacterial PGNs. Third, muramyl-L-alanine appearsto be the minimal structure required and its L configuration isessential for the hypha-inducing activity. Fourth, the results suggestthat other PG components structurally related to MLADiQ may also beactive for hyphal induction.

The Role of the LRR Domain of C. Albicans Adenylate Cyclase CaCdc35p

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, including PG motifs, are knownto be recognized by LRR domain-containing proteins in mammals, plantsand Drosophila to initiate host innate immune response. In view of thesedata studies were carried out to determine if C. albicans might use asimilar mechanism for MLADiQ sensing.

BLAST-searches were conducted to on the C. albicans genome database toidentify proteins that may contain LRR domain-containing proteins. Datafrom these searches lead to the identification of a single significantmatch with CaCdc35p. CaCdc35p is a large protein of 1690 amino acids(aa) with multiple functional domains: a Ras association (RA) domain (aa304-393), 15 LRRs (aa 490-927) organized in three clusters, and anadenylyl cyclase (CYCc) domain (aa 12471500). CaCdc35p has beenpositioned near the top of the cAMPIPKA signal transduction pathways forhyphal growth (Leberer, E., et al. (2001) Mol. Microbiol. 42, 673-687;Roche, C. R., et al (2001) Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 3631-3643). CaCDC35deletion mutant is completely blocked for hyphal development andexhibits severely retarded yeast growth as well (Leberer, E., et al.(2001) Mol. Microbiol. 42, 673-687). To assess whether CaCdc35p LRRdomain is required for sensing MLADiQ, a series of cacdc35 mutantsdeleted of either the entire LRR domain (IrrΔ) or each of the three LRRclusters (Irr1Δ, Irr2Δ and Irr3Δ) were created. Point mutations werealso introduced in some of the highly conserved residues within arepeat. For example, mutants Irr5mu and Irr9mu carrying Leu→Ala andAsn→Ala mutations in repeats 5, and 9 respectively. The genomic DNAfragment encoding CaCdc35p and approximately 500 bp of both 5′ and 3′flanking sequences was cloned in plasmid Clp10 as the template formutation. Each of the constructs was integrated at a specific site inthe promoter region of the CaCDC35locus in a cacdc35A mutant and theexpression was verified by Western blot analysis. The wild-type CaCDC35fully rescued the hyphal development defect of cacdc35Δ in response toMLADiQ as well as serum and reduced the doubling time of yeast growthfrom 4.46 h to 1.67 h in GMM at 30° C. Strikingly, although all LRRdomain mutants largely rescued the retarded yeast growth of cacdc35Δ,none restored to any extent the hyphal development in response to MLADiQand serum. The results suggest that the LRR domain may have a specificrole in mediating the hypha-inducing signals and this activity islargely separable from the general growth function of the protein.

One crucial early event in C. albicans hyphal growth is the occurrenceof a spike of intracellular cAMP. The observation that the LRR domainmutants rescued the yeast growth defect of cacdc35A but not the hyphalgrowth defect suggests that the mutated CaCdc35p may be able to providea basal level of cellular cAMP which is important for general growthfunctions but unable to increase cAMP production which is required forthe activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway. To test this hypothesis, cAMPlevels were examined in wild-type and several LRR domain mutants inresponse to MLADiQ treatment. The yeast cells were treated with 50 μMMLADiQ, a concentration that consistently induced near 100% yeast-hyphaswitch in wild-type strains, and aliquots were harvested every 20 minfor cAMP assay. In the wild-type yeast cells the intracellular cAMPlevel was found to be approximately 1.7 pmol/mg dry cells. Upon hyphalinduction by MLADiQ at 37° C. the cAMP level rapidly rose to 3.8 by 30to 40 min, gradually declined in the next 30 min to approximately 2.8pmol and remained at this level during hyphal growth. By contrast, cAMPwas undetectable in cacdc35Δ cells. Re-introducing in the mutant a copyof CaCDC35, IrrΔ or Irr9mu restored the CAMP level to 1.2-1.7 pmol/mgdry cells during yeast growth. However, the MLADiQ-induced cAMP spikewas only detected in the cacdc35Δ cells transformed with CaCDC35. Theresults demonstrate that the LRR domain mutants can provide a basallevel of cellular cAMP but unable to increase it in response to MLADiQtreatment.

Next, assays were performed for the conversion of α-³²P-ATP toα-³²P-cAMP in cell lysate after the addition of MLADiQ, which is adirect measure of the adenylate cyclase activity. Cell lysate wasprepared by glass bead-beating of cells under nondenaturing conditions.Adding MLADiQ to the wild-type lysate activated a32P-cAMP production andas low as approximately 6 μM of MLADiQ was sufficient to induce themaximum level of activation of the catalytic activity. By contrast, noincrease of the cyclase activity was observed in the lysates of IrrΔ andIrr9mu cells. The data indicate that MLADiQ directly enhances theadenylate cyclase activity of CaCdc35p in an LRR domain-dependentmanner.

Direct Interaction Between Recombinant CaCdc35p LRR Domain and MLADiQ

Next, the possibility that MLA 7IQ may directly bind to the LRR domainof CaCdc35p was explored. The wild-type LRR domain and that of Irr9muwere expressed in E. coli as glutathione-S-transferase (GST) fusions andpurified to high homogeneity. Then circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopywas used to detect possible direct interaction between the LRR domainand MLADIQ. CD is a reliable tool in detecting conformational changes ina protein as a result of ligand binding (Woody, R. W. (1995). MethodsEnzymol. 246, 34-71). Adding MLADiQ to the GST-LRR fusion proteinresulted in a significant concentration-dependent shift of theellipticity values of the CD spectra, whereas this effect was notobserved on the spectra of GST-Irr9mu and GST. None of the compoundslacking the hypha-inducing activity exhibited significant effect on theCD spectra of LRR, whereas the less active hyphal inducers MLA, NMLADiQand NAG caused a weaker but consistent spectrum shift. Together, theresults of both the fluorescence and CD spectroscopy demonstrate adirect interaction between MLADiQ and the LRR domain of CaCdc35p as wellas an excellent correlation between the hypha-inducing activity of thecomponents and their affinity for LRR binding.

Since specific binding of a molecule to a tryptophan-containing proteinmay cause concentration-dependent quenching; of tryptophan fluorescence,fluorescence spectroscopy was used to measure the intensity oftryptophan fluorescence of the recombinant LRR domains in the presenceof different concentrations of MLADiQ. The results showed that MLADiQcaused significant fluorescence quenching of the GST-LRR fusion in aconcentration dependent fashion. In comparison, MDADiQ did not cause anyconsiderable quenching, whereas the less potent inducers MLA, NMLADiQand NAG induced lower levels of fluorescence quenching. The fluorescencespectrum of GST-Irr9mu appeared similar to that of GST-LRR in theabsence of ligand, suggesting that the point mutations had little effecton the overall conformation of the domain. However, the mutated domaindid not exhibit detectable fluorescence quenching when mixed withMLADIQ. The fluorescence spectrum of GST was not affected by any of thecompounds used. Nonlinear regression analysis of the fluorescencequenching as a function of MLADiQ concentration suggested unimodalbinding with an equilibrium dissociation constant (K_(d)) of 1.44±0.14μM and a 1:1 ligand/receptor interaction. MLA, NMLADiQ and NAG exhibitedK_(d) values of 1.67±0.13, 5.26±0.47 and 6.80±0.32 μM respectively.

Modifications of the above-described modes of carrying out the variousembodiments of this invention will be apparent to those skilled in theart based on the above teachings related to the disclosed invention. Theabove embodiments of the invention are merely exemplary and should notbe construed to be in any way limiting.

1. A method of modulating morphogenesis of a fungus by controlling theconcentration of muramyl-L-alanine in the fungal environment.
 2. Themethod as claimed in claim 1 wherein the fungal environment is in a bodyfluids.
 3. The method as claimed in claim 1 wherein the fungalenvironment is in serum.
 4. The method as claimed in claim 1 wherein thefungus is a yeast.
 5. The method as claimed in claim 4 wherein the yeastis a Candida.
 6. The method as claimed in claim 5 wherein the Candida isCandida albicans.
 7. The method as claimed in claim 1 wherein increasingthe concentration of muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in the core structure induce the fungus to a hyphalmorphogenesis.
 8. The method as claimed in claim 1 wherein removing,degrading or neutralizing the concentration of muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in the core structure inhibitsthe fungus to a hyphal morphogenesis.
 9. The method of claim 8 whereinmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in thecore structure is removed, degraded or neutralised by amuramyl-L-alanine-specific antibody.
 10. The method of claim 9 whereinthe antibody is catalytic.
 11. A method for treating a patient to atleast reduce Candida hyphal growth, which comprises the step ofcontacting the infection with an antagonist to muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in the core structure.
 12. Themethod of claim 11 wherein the antagonist is an antibody tomuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in thecore structure.
 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the antibody is aneutralizing antibody to muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in the core structure.
 14. The method of claim 12wherein the antagonist interferes with Candida hyphal growth.
 15. Themethod of claim 11 wherein the antagonist comprises a compound with amuramyl-L-alanine in the core structure.
 16. The method of claim 15wherein the compound engages the LRR domain of CaCdc35p preventingmuramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in thecore structure from binding to the LRR domain.
 17. A method ofmodulating morphogenesis of a fungus in a patient comprising the stepsof: a. preparing a composition comprising an adjuvant and a compoundwith a muramyl-L-alanine in the core structure; and b. administering thecomposition to the patient.
 18. A composition comprising atherapeutically effective amount of a modulator of muramyl-L-alanineconcentration.
 19. The composition of claim 18 wherein the modulator isan antagonist to muramyl-L-alanine.
 20. The composition of claim 19wherein the antagonist is an antibody to muramyl-L-alanine.
 21. Thecomposition of claim 20 wherein the antibody is a catalytic antibody tomuramyl-L-alanine.
 22. The composition of claim 18 wherein the modulatorcomprises a compound with a muramyl-L-alanine in the core structure. 23.The composition of claim 22 wherein the compound engages the LRR domainof CaCdc35p preventing muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in the core structure from binding to the LRR domain.24. The composition of claim 22 further comprising an adjuvant capableof inducing an immune response.
 25. (canceled)
 26. (canceled)
 27. Amethod of determining the extent of Candida hyphal growth in a samplecomprising the step of measuring the amount of muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure in bodyfluids sampled from a Candida infection.
 28. The method of claim 27further comprising the step of determining the patient's treatmentaccording to whether hyphal growth is expected or not.
 29. A method forscreening for agonists and antagonists of Candida hyphal growthcomprising the steps of: a. contacting (i) muramyl-L-alanine and/orcompounds that include muramyl-L-alanine in their core structure and(ii) the LRR domain of CaCdc35p from a Candida species with a samplecompound; and b. detecting whether the sample compound exhibitsagonistic or antagonistic activity towards the interaction.
 30. Themethod of claim 29 wherein the antagonistic drugs are capable ofinterfering either in a direct or indirect manner with the interactionbetween Candida and muramyl-L-alanine and/or compounds that includemuramyl-L-alanine in their core structure.
 31. (canceled)
 32. A methodfor treating a patient infected with Candida comprising administering tothe patient the composition of claim
 18. 33. A method for treating apatient infected with Candida comprising administering to the patient anantagonist of Candida hyphal growth, wherein the antagonist isidentified according to the method of claim 29.